1 Children in Need Children and Families in England
1.1 There are approximately eleven million children in England. It is estimated that over four million of them are living in families with less than half the average household income. By other calculations, well over three million children are living in poverty (Utting, 1995). Where these children live is significant. 'Over the last generation, this has become a divided country. While most areas have benefited from rising living standards, the poorest neighbourhoods have tended to become more run down, more prone to crime and more cut off from the labour market' (Social Exclusion Unit, 1998). Estimates vary about how many neighbourhoods are in the poorest categories, ranging from 1,600 to 4,000 in Britain as a whole. In response to these trends, the Government is developing major strategies to tackle the root causes of poverty and social exclusion, and to respond to the serious and multi-faceted problems for children and their families which these can create, particularly in the poorest areas. These strategies also aim to encourage and promote preventive and early intervention approaches to help reduce the scale and difficulty of such problems and to tackle them before they become entrenched. 1.2 Just as the problems facing families are often interlinked, so the services provided for children and their families need to work closely together to be most effective. Everyone benefits if services are properly co-ordinated and integrated. It is the purpose of Children's Services Planning (Department of Health and Department for Education and Employment,1996) to identify the broad range and level of need in an area and to develop corporate, inter-agency, community based plans of action to provide the most effective network of services within the resources available. It is important that all those concerned with services to children and families - statutory and voluntary bodies, community groups and families - contribute to the development of these plans. 1.3 It is recognised that many families are under considerable stress, that being a parent is hard work, and families have a right to expect practical support from universal services, such as health and education. The importance of all parents having available to them good quality local resources is acknowledged. The Government is committed to supporting parenting and has set up the National Family and Parenting Institute to assess the support needs of families, to raise public awareness of the importance of parenting and the needs of children, to map and disseminate information and good practice, and to provide advice to Government and others in a way which refiects our culturally diverse society. It will work collaboratively with others to help develop parent support services and to infiuence the research agenda and analyse and disseminate research findings. It will draw on anonymised data from ParentLine Plus, whose freephone national telephone Helpline is available to provide a service to all parents. Steps are being taken through public service and welfare reforms to modernise the National Health Service, raise standards in local schools, provide good out of school care, reduce crime, ensure streets are safe for families and strengthen communities' capacities to respond to and support families. This forms an ambitious programme which will take many years to deliver in full and requires continuous concerted central and local government effort. 1.4 All families may experience difficulties from time to time for a whole host of reasons which may have an impact on their children. These reasons may include the death of a family member, physical or mental ill health in the family, the breakdown of marital or other significant relationships, sudden loss of employment, multiple births, or having a child with special educational needs. Not all adults are well prepared for the daily upheavals and stress of bringing up a child. Some parents may find one particular stage in their child's life especially stressful, for example adolescence. Many cope well enough with one problem but a combination of problems can have a cummulative debilitating effect. 1.5 Many families coping with extremely difficult circumstances receive sufficient support from friends, relatives and services in the community including universal services to overcome potential disadvantage. They are not likely to seek or require additional services. In this sense, parenting has been called 'a buffered system' (Belsky and Vondra, 1989). In some cases the buffers of family and community resources may not exist or be sufficient to ensure the current or future wellbeing of the child. It is in these situations that additional support or services may be necessary, some of which may be purchased by parents (such as day care) or obtained directly from other statutory or voluntary agencies (such as befriending by a volunteer). Some parents may turn to or be referred to child welfare agencies in the community and require targeted services from health, education and social services. The Extent of Children in Need 1.6 Children may be defined as in need in many different circumstances. The information on how many children are known to social services is not available nationally, but current estimates suggest between 300,000 and 400,000 children are known at any one time. Figure 1 shows how the extent of need can be represented within the context of vulnerable1 and all children. According to Department of Health statistics, about 53,000 children are looked after in statutory care at any one time (Department of Health, 1999b). This figure excludes those disabled children receiving respite care. Approximately 32,000 children's names are on a Child Protection Register at any one time because they require a child protection plan (Department of Health, 1999i). 1.7 The families referred to or seeking help from social services will have differing levels of need. Many will be helped by advice or practical services or short term intervention. A smaller proportion will have problems of such complexity and seriousness that they require more detailed assessment, involving other agencies in that process, leading to appropriate plans and interventions.
1.8 This can best be illustrated by examining the experience of one unitary authority, as an example:
1.9 This authority, in parallel with many others, has been working for the past three years with its community and local agencies to take a broader-based approach to helping vulnerable children and their families and has begun to find:
1.10 Ensuring that assessment discriminates effectively between different types and levels of need, from the point of referral onwards, is critical to the objective of improving the effectiveness of services to children and securing best value from available resources (Department of Health, 1999e). Children in Need under the Children Act 1989 1.11 The obligations of the State to assist families who need help in bringing up their own children are laid down in legislation. Part III of the Children Act 1989 is the basis in law for the provision of local services to children in need: children in this respect are defined as under the age of 18 (s105).
1.12 The Children Act 1989 places a specific duty on agencies to co-operate in the interests of children in need in section 27. Section 322 of the Education Act 1996 also places a duty on the local authority to assist the local education authority where any child who has special educational needs.
1.13 Several key principles which underpin the Children Act 1989 are found in Part III of the Act:
The notion of partnership between State and families is thus also established in this Part of the Act. 1.14 In order to carry out these duties the meaning of safeguarding and promoting within the parameters of the Children Act 1989 should be appreciated, as should the contribution of these objectives to strengthening and supplementing parental capacities so that children may grow up in their families, wherever possible. 1.15 Safeguarding has two elements:
1.16 The duty to protect children from maltreatment demands knowledge and understanding of the law and the accompanying government guidance, Working Together to Safeguard Children (1999). 1.17 However, safeguarding children should not be seen as a separate activity from promoting their welfare. They are two sides of the same coin. Promoting welfare has a wider, more positive, action centred approach embedded in a philosophy of creating opportunities to enable children to have optimum life chances in adulthood, as well as ensuring they are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care. A useful framework for looking at the policy context of children in need and the value of applying a twin approach of safeguarding and promoting welfare at different levels of intervention has been developed by Hardiker et al (1996; 1999). Their grid, reproduced in Appendix B, can be used to help the planning and appropriate provision of services. 1.18 Children who are defined as in need under the Children Act 1989 are those whose vulnerability is such that they are unlikely to reach or maintain a satisfactory level of health and development, or their health and development will be significantly impaired without the provision of services. The critical factors to be taken into account in deciding whether a child is in need under the Children Act 1989 are what will happen to a child's health and development without services, and the likely effect the services will have on the child's standard of health and development. Determining who is in need, what those needs are, and how services will have an effect on outcomes for children requires professional judgement by social services staff together with colleagues from other professional disciplines who are working with children and families. 1.19 The criteria for defining who is in need are spelt out above in section 17(10) of the Children Act 1989. The criteria include a child who is disabled. A child is defined as disabled 'if he is blind, deaf or dumb or suffers from mental disorder of any kind, or is substantially and permanently handicapped by illness, injury or congenital or other such disability as may be prescribed' (s17(11)). This definition does not preclude children whose impairment may be less substantial from being defined as children in need under the other categories. Thus, where the family, educational, social or environmental circumstances may be preventing such a disabled child from achieving or maintaining a reasonable standard of health or development without the provision of services, the local authority should consider whether that child is a child in need.
1.20 The duties and powers of the local authority to assess the needs of a child and to provide services are outlined in Part III of the Children Act 1989, in particular section 17, and Schedule 2 Part I. Part III is the main part of the Act (titled Local Authority Support for Children and Families) about the delivery of services by social services departments. Other Parts (I, II, IV and V) outline the way in which court orders may be obtained to authorise or enforce certain actions, in relation to family proceedings, care and supervision and the protection of children. 1.21 The Act gives local authority social services the power to assess children's needs as follows:
1.22 Professionals from a number of agencies, but in particular health and education, are a key source of referral to social services departments of children who are, or may be, in need. They may already know these children and their families well and, if so, they will be key in assisting social services departments to carry out their assessment functions under the Children Act 1989. Knowledge of the Assessment Framework will be of use to all professionals when they are contributing to assessments of children in need, including when they are undertaking or contributing to assessments as part of their responsibilities for safeguarding children under Working Together to Safeguard Children (1999). 1.23 The following principles should guide inter-agency, inter-disciplinary work with children in need. It is essential to be clear about:
1.24 It is important to agree an assessment plan with the child and family, so that all parties understand who is doing what, when, and how the various assessments will be used to inform overall judgements about a child's needs and subsequent planning. When joint assessments are being undertaken, clarity is required about whether this means one professional will undertake an assessment on behalf of the team or whether several types of assessment are to be undertaken in parallel. In the latter situation, thought is required regarding how these can be organised to avoid duplication. Service users, in particular parents of disabled children, report that assessments are often repetitive and uninformed by previous work. The agreed process should be based on what is appropriate for the needs of the particular child and family, taking account of the purpose of the assessment, rather than what fits best with professional systems. Agreed protocols and procedures should be fiexible enough to accommodate different ways of undertaking assessments within the overall Assessment Framework. Children Who are Suffering or are Likely to Suffer Significant Harm 1.25 Some children are in need because they are suffering or likely to suffer significant harm. Concerns about maltreatment may be the reason for referral of a family to social services or concerns may arise during the course of providing services to a family. In such circumstances, the local authority is obliged to consider initiating enquiries to find out what is happening to a child and whether action should be taken to protect a child. This obligation is set out in Part V s47 of the Children Act 1989 (Protection of Children): 1.26 This section of the Act requires local authorities to consider if action is necessary. To make enquiries implies the need to assess what is happening to a child. The procedures for such action to be followed are laid down in Working Together to Safeguard Children (1999). Where there is reasonable cause to suspect that a child may be suffering or is at risk of suffering significant harm, section 47 (9)(10)(11) places a duty on:
to help a local authority with its enquiries. In addition, the Police have a duty and a responsibility to investigate criminal offences committed against children.
1.27 It is important to emphasise that the assessment should concentrate on the harm that has occurred or is likely to occur to the child as a result of child maltreatment, in order to inform future plans and the nature of services required. This is because there is substantial research evidence to suggest that the health and development of children, including their educational attainment, may be severely affected if they have been subjected to child maltreatment (Varma (ed), 1993; Adcock and White (eds), 1998; Jones and Ramchandani, 1999). It is not enough to have established the harm: action should be taken to safeguard and promote children's welfare. The duty to both safeguard and promote the child's welfare continues throughout the process of finding out whether there are grounds for concern that a child may be suffering or is at risk of suffering significant harm and deciding what action should be taken. Services may be provided to safeguard and promote the child's welfare (under Part III of the Act), while enquiries are being carried out, or, after protective action has been taken while an application is being made for a care or supervision order (under Part IV). 1.28 The local authority has a duty to respond to children in need in their area in the following ways:
1.29 The provision of services has a very broad meaning; the aim may be to prevent deterioration, that is to stop situations from getting worse, as well as to improve a child's health and development. Decisions about which services to provide should be based on an assessment of the child and families circumstances, in the following three domains: child's developmental needs, parenting capacity, and family and environmental factors. This framework for assessing children in need and their families is discussed fully in Chapter 2. It should be stressed that services, such as direct work with children and families, may be offered at the same time as family proceedings are in progress. The one does not preclude the other. Furthermore, services may be provided to any members of the family in order to assist a child in need (s17(3) of the Children Act 1989). The needs of parent carers are an integral part of an assessment. Providing services which meet the needs of parents is often the most effective means of promoting the welfare of children, in particular disabled children. 1.30 Services may include those provided by local authority children's services or by local authority adult services or by other agencies, on a single agency, inter-agency or multi-agency basis. By inter-agency it is meant that services are provided by individual agencies according to an agreed plan. By multi-agency, it is meant that services are provided by agencies acting in concert and drawing on pooled resources or a pooled budget or services defined as such in legislation, for example youth offending teams. 1.31 Services may be provided on a one off or episodic basis or over a longer period of time as determined by the child's plan (see paragraph 4.33). These provisions are often described as a continuum of services to support children and their families, and include care for a child in accommodation away from home. It is the function of Children's Services Planning to make sure this continuum of services is in place. Services provided in parallel with court proceedings or following on from a court order are provided under Part III of the Act. 1.32 In determining what services should be provided to a particular child and his family, social services departments are not charged with the same duty as the courts that the child's welfare shall be the 'paramount consideration' (s1(1)). Rather they have a broader duty to promote children's welfare to achieve the best possible outcomes for that particular child. Social services, in their assessment of whether a child is in need and how to respond to those needs, also have to take into consideration other children in the family and the general circumstances of that family. Social services have to identify the impact of what is happening to the child and also the likely impact of any intervention on that child and on other family members. Assessment requires careful consideration of the repercussions or consequences of providing specific types of services and the extent to which they will both safeguard and promote a particular child's welfare and development. This may be a complex equation which requires a high level of skill and professional judgement, involving all agency partners. Principles Underpinning Assessment of Children in Need 1.33 Important principles underpin the approach to assessing children in need and their families which is outlined in this Guidance. They are important in understanding the development of the framework and in considering how an assessment should be carried out.
1.34 Fundamental to establishing whether a child is in need and how those needs should be best met is that the approach must be child centred. This means that the child is seen and kept in focus throughout the assessment and that account is always taken of the child's perspective. In complex situations where much is happening, attention can be diverted from the child to other issues which the family may be facing, such as a high level of confiict between adult family members, or depression being experienced by a parent or acute housing problems. This can result in the child becoming lost during assessment and the impact of the family and environmental circumstances on the child not being clearly identified and understood. The significance of seeing and observing the child throughout any assessment cannot be overstated. 1.35 The importance, therefore, of undertaking direct work with children during assessment is emphasised, including developing multiple, age, gender and culturally appropriate methods for ascertaining their wishes and feelings, and understanding the meaning of their experiences to them. Throughout the assessment process, the safety of the child should be ensured. 1.36 A thorough understanding of child development is critical to work with children and their families. Children have a range of different and complex developmental needs which must be met during different stages of childhood if optimal outcomes are to be achieved. Disabled children, including those with learning disabilities, may have a different rate of progress across the various developmental dimensions. Many disabled children will have quite individual patterns of development, for example a child with autism may acquire some skills ahead of the usual milestones but may never develop some communication skills. In addition, different aspects of development will have more or less weight at different stages of a child's life. For example, in the early years there is an emphasis on developing cognitive and language skills, achieving physical milestones and forming secure attachments; in middle childhood, social and educational development become more prominent; while the adolescent strives to reconcile the tensions between social and emotional dependence and independence. 1.37 Each child's development is significantly shaped by his or her particular experiences and the interaction between a series of factors. Some factors are intrinsic to individual children, such as characteristics of genetic inheritance or temperament. Other factors may include particular health problems or an impairment. Others may relate to their culture and to the physical and emotional environment in which a child is living. 1.38 Children referred for help are frequently very vulnerable and their opportunities to reach their full potential may have been or may be likely to be compromised in some way, for a variety of reasons. It is, therefore, crucial to know about the importance of developmental milestones which children need to reach, if they are to be healthy and achieve their full potential. This knowledge should recognise also that children are individuals and variations may occur in that sequence of development: such variations, however, may indicate services are necessary. Professionals should understand the consequences of variations for particular children of different ages, some of whom may have special educational needs and profound difficulties. Furthermore, they have to understand the significance of timing in a child's life. Children may not be getting what they require at a crucial stage in their development and time is passing. Plans and interventions should be based on a clear assessment of the developmental progress and difficulties a child may be experiencing and ensure that planned action is timely and appropriate in terms of the child's developmental needs. 1.39 An understanding of a child must be located within the context of the child's family (parents or caregivers and the wider family) and of the community and culture in which he or she is growing up. The significance of understanding the parent-child relationship has long been part of child welfare practice: less so the importance of the interface between environmental factors and a child's development, and the infiuence of these environmental factors on parents' capacities to respond to their child's needs (Jack, 1997; Stevenson, 1998 and others). The association between economic disadvantage and the chances that children will fail to thrive (Utting, 1995) and the association between a teenager's friendship group and pro-social and anti-social behaviour (Rutter et al, 1998) are well researched. So is the impact on parenting capacity of a supportive wider family or of struggling to bring up children in impoverished living conditions. 'Living on a low income in a run down neighbourhood does not make it impossible to be the affectionate, authoritative parent of healthy, sociable children. But it does, undeniably, make it more difficult' (Utting, 1995, p. 40). 1.40 Assessment, therefore, should take account of three domains:
1.41 The interaction between the three domains and the way they infiuence each other must be carefully analysed in order to gain a complete picture of a child's unmet needs and how to identify the best response to them. Ensuring Equality of Opportunity 1.42 The Children Act 1989 is built on the premise that 'children and young people and their parents should all be considered as individuals with particular needs and potentialities' (Department of Health, 1989), that differences in bringing up children due to family structures, religion, culture and ethnic origins should be respected and understood and that those children with 'specific social needs arising out of disability or a health condition' have their assessed needs met and reviewed (Department of Health, 1998a). Ensuring that all children who are assessed as in need have the opportunity to achieve optimal development, according to their circumstances and age, is an important principle. Furthermore, since discrimination of all kinds is an everyday reality in many children's lives, every effort must be made to ensure that agencies' responses do not refiect or reinforce that experience and indeed, should counteract it. Some vulnerable children may have been particularly disadvantaged in their access to important opportunities, such as those who have suffered multiple family disruptions or prolonged maltreatment by abuse or neglect and are sub-sequently looked by the local authority. Their health and educational needs will require particular attention in order to optimise their long term outcomes in young adulthood. 1.43 Ensuring equality of opportunity does not mean that all children are treated the same. It does mean understanding and working sensitively and knowledgeably with diversity to identify the particular issues for a child and his/her family, taking account of experiences and family context. This is further elaborated in the chapters in the accompanying practice guidance on working with disabled children and with black children. Working with Children and their Families 1.44 The majority of parents want to do the best for their children. Whatever their circumstances or difficulties, the concept of partnership between the State and the family, in situations where families are in need of assistance in bringing up their children, lies at the heart of child care legislation. The importance of partnership has been further reinforced by a substantial number of research findings, including the child protection studies (Department of Health, 1995d) and family support studies (Butt and Box, 1998; Aldgate and Bradley, 1999; Tunstill and Aldgate, 2000). In the process of finding out what is happening to a child, it will be critical to develop a co-operative working relationship, so that parents or caregivers feel respected and informed, that staff are being open and honest with them, and that they in turn are confident about providing vital information about their child, themselves and their circumstances. 1.45 Working with family members is not an end in itself; the objective must always be to safeguard and promote the welfare of the child. The child, therefore, must be kept in focus. It requires sensitivity to and understanding of the circumstances of families and their particular needs, for example where English is not a parent's first language or where adults who are significant to a child are not living in the same household or where a parent is disabled or mentally ill. For a disabled parent reasonable adjustments will be needed, for example, it may be necessary to provide information to a blind parent in an alternative format such as Braille or on audio tape, or to communicate with a deaf parent using British Sign Language. 1.46 Parents value taking part in discussions about how and where the assessment will be carried out, as well as what they hope it will achieve. Similarly, according to the age and development of the child, listening to what children have to say and working openly and honestly is valued by them and produces more effective outcomes. This is discussed further in Chapter 3. 1.47 Developing a working relationship with children and family members will not always be easy to achieve and can be difficult especially when there have been concerns about significant harm to the child. However resistant the family or difficult the circumstances, it remains important to continue to try to find ways of engaging the family in the assessment process. Use of mediation may be helpful in assisting professionals and family members to work together. The quality of the early or initial contact will affect later working relationships and the ability of professionals to secure an agreed understanding of what is happening and to provide help. Studies have found that even in situations where child sexual abuse is alleged, despite early difficulties that may arise because of having to take immediate child protective action, it may still be possible to work with children and their parents (Cleaver and Freeman, 1995; Jones and Ramchandani, 1999). Working with children and family members, where there are concerns about a child suffering significant harm is discussed in paragraphs 7.2 to 7.12 in Working Together to Safeguard Children (1999). Building on Strengths as well as Identifying Difficulties 1.48 It is important that an approach to assessment, which is based on a full understanding of what is happening to a child in the context of his or her family and the wider community, examines carefully the nature of the interactions between the child, family and environmental factors and identifies both positive and negative infiuences. These will vary for each child. Nothing can be assumed; the facts must be sought, the meaning attached to them explored and weighed up with the family. Sometimes assessments have been largely in terms of a child or family's difficulties or problems, or the risks seen to be attached to particular behaviours or situations. What is working well or what may be acting as positive factors for the child and family may be overlooked. For example, a single mother, in crisis over health, financial and housing problems, may still be managing to get her child up in time in the mornings, washed, dressed, breakfasted and off to school each day. An older child, living in a family periodically disrupted by domestic violence, may be provided with welcome respite care on a regular basis by a grandmother living locally. Working with a child or family's strengths may be an important part of a plan to resolve difficulties. 1.49 This is not to suggest that staff should suspend their critical professional judgement and adopt a 'rule of optimism' (Dingwall et al, 1983). It is important, however, that they not only identify the deficits in assessing a family's situation, but also make a realistic and informed appraisal of the strengths and resources in the family and the relative weight that should be given to each. These can be mobilised to safeguard and promote the child's welfare. Inter-Agency Approach to Assessment and Provision of Services 1.50 From birth, all children will become involved with a variety of different agencies in the community, particularly in relation to their health, day care and educational development. A range of professionals, including midwives, health visitors, general practitioners, nursery staff and teachers, will have a role in assessing their general wellbeing and development. Children who are vulnerable are, therefore, likely to be identified by these professionals, who will have an important responsibility in deciding whether to refer them to social services for further assessment and help. The knowledge they already have about a child and family is an essential component of any assessment. These agencies may also be required to provide more specialist assessment for those smaller numbers of children where there are particular causes for concern. Similarly, responding to the needs of vulnerable children may require services from agencies other than social services or in combination with social services help. Inter-agency work starts as soon as there are concerns about a child's welfare, not just when there is an enquiry about significant harm. An important underlying principle of the approach to assessment in this Guidance, therefore, is that it is based on a inter-agency model in which it is not just social services departments which are the assessors and providers of services. A Continuing Process, not a Single Event 1.51 Understanding what is happening to a vulnerable child within the context of his or her family and the local community cannot be achieved as a single event. It must necessarily be a process of gathering information from a variety of sources and making sense of it with the family and, very often, with several professionals concerned with the child's welfare. 1.52 This assessment process involves one or more of the following:
1.53 For many children who come to the attention of social services departments, the process will be relatively straightforward and short term. The more complex or serious a child's situation, however, the more time it may take to understand thoroughly what is happening to the child, the reasons why and the impact on the child and the more it is also likely to involve several agencies in that process. Where there are concerns about a child's safety, decisions to safeguard the child may have to be made quickly pending greater understanding of the child's circumstances. Once it has been established whether a child is in need, further questions will remain to be answered about:
Assessment should continue throughout a period of intervention, and intervention may start at the beginning of an assessment. 1.54 Assessment is thus an iterative process which for some children will continue throughout work with the child and the family or caregivers. In order to achieve the best outcomes, the framework should be used also at important decision making times when reviewing the child's progress and future plans. Use of the Assessment Framework linked to the Looking After Children materials which have been used to monitor the child's progress whilst they have been looked after will enhance care planning and reviewing processes. This will provide an integrated framework for children looked after which should be used at key decision making points including return home from residential or foster care, or longer term plans for an alternative family placement such as adoption, or when leaving care. 1.55 This does not mean that assessment should be over intrusive, repeated unnecessarily or continued without any clear purpose or outcome. Effective discrimination between different types and levels of need are key considerations. Action and Services are Provided in Parallel with Assessment 1.56 Although assessment is generally described in this Guidance as a discrete process which will result in an understanding of need, from which a plan of action and intervention can be developed, in many situations there is inevitably overlap between these different activities. Undertaking an assessment with a family can begin a process of understanding and change by key family members. A practitioner may, during the process of gathering information, be instrumental in bringing about change by the questions asked, by listening to members of the family, by validating the family's difficulties or concerns, and by providing information and advice. The process of assessment should be therapeutic in itself. This does not preclude taking timely action either to provide immediate services or to take steps to protect a child who is suffering or is likely to suffer significant harm. Action and services should be provided according to the needs of the child and family, in parallel with assessment where necessary, and not await completion of the assessment. 1.57 Each professional discipline derives its knowledge from a particular theoretical base, related research findings and accumulated practice wisdom and experience. Social work practice, however, differs in that it derives its knowledge from theory and research in many different disciplines. Practice is also based on policies laid down in legislation and government guidance. It is essential that practitioners and their managers ensure that practice and its supervision are grounded in the most up to date knowledge and that they make use of the resources described in the practice guidance as well as other critical materials, including:
1.58 Practice is expected to be evidence based, by which it is meant that practitioners:
1.59 The combination of evidence based practice grounded in knowledge with finely balanced professional judgement is the foundation for effective practice with children and families. 1.60 The knowledge base from which these principles are derived and the application of the principles to the process of assessing children in need and their families are developed in subsequent chapters. 1. Vulnerable children are those disadvantaged
children who would benefit from extra help from public agencies in order
to make the best of their life chances. Four million children live in
families with less than half the average household income.
Prepared 29 March 2000 |
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