| A review of Primary schools in England, 1994 - 1998 | ||||
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Chapter 12 (continued)
Before the introduction of the National Curriculum there was relatively little systematic teaching of history in primary schools. There were some very effective studies of history either in its own right or within history-led topics, but these were, as the HMI of the time put it, "rubies in porridge". A decade later, history is prospering in primary schools. A visitor walking round a primary school is now likely to see lively history displays on the walls of classrooms and corridors, as well as artefacts of all kinds and a range of attractive history books. In general, this reflects the fact that most teachers and pupils like history; and this includes many teachers who, for example, dreaded the prospect of teaching about the Greeks but who now relish the retelling of Homeric tales. Standards of achievement Over the past four years there has been a modest but steady improvement in standards achieved by pupils in both key stages, with an increase in the number of schools where pupils' progress is satisfactory from eight out of ten to nine out of ten. In 1997/98, history was good overall in two out of ten schools at Key Stage 1 and in three out of ten schools at Key Stage 2. There is, therefore, considerable room for further improvement. For history, the knowledge, understanding and skills are set out as "Key Elements", and developed in the context of a prescribed body of content. The Key Elements are: chronology; range and depth of historical knowledge and understanding; interpretations of history; historical enquiry; and organisation and communication. In Key Stage 1 these Key Elements are taught through broadly defined "Areas of Study", which include family and local history as well as stories of the lives of famous people. In Key Stage 2 the content is set out in the form of six study units: Romans, Anglo-Saxons and Vikings; life in Tudor times; Victorian Britain or Britain since 1930; the Greeks; a past non-European society; and local history. In Key Stage 1, many pupils gain a sense of time (Key Element 1), often related to their own home, family or school experience. In Key Stage 2, chronology is further developed, for example through increasingly sophisticated use of timelines and terminology. Where progress is weak, it is often for lack of sufficient reinforcement to enable pupils to make links and build up an overview of the past. Pupils in Key Stage 1 develop their knowledge and understanding of history (Key Element 2) in a wide range of contexts. Much successful work which has meaning for pupils involves hearing about and discussing familiar material such as families, toys, schools and the local area, and comparing old and new. Additionally, some pupils make good progress in retelling stories of famous people and events, and in identifying reasons why people acted as they did. In Key Stage 2, pupils begin to develop an understanding of the organising concepts of history. For example, some pupils in Year 5 and Year 6 are able to account for change in Victorian times, and to explain why Britain went to war with Nazi Germany in 1939. At best, pupils acquire in outline a knowledge and understanding of the main events and characteristics of the period they are studying and additionally study particular aspects in depth. Pupils' knowledge and understanding is weak where they can offer only an overview or a narrow focus on the periods they have studied. Progress in the Key Element 3, interpretations of history, lags behind that in other Key Elements, and it receives inadequate attention. Key Element 4, historical enquiry, is also weaker in many schools. Where progress is good in Key Stage 1, pupils find out from parents and grandparents about differences in their respective childhoods, or can ask questions of sources of evidence, such as photographs. In Key Stage 2 where progress is good pupils learn to be more discriminating in the selection of evidence; they become aware of the relative value to the historian of particular sources, for example by grasping the problems of bias, the purpose of propaganda, and the advantages and disadvantages of first-hand evidence; and they can combine information in order to produce clear accounts. Often, however, progress in historical enquiry is limited, with pupils taking limited evidence at face value. In some schools pupils produce excellent individual work as a response to historical questions or open investigations, often illustrated accurately and sometimes using information technology (Key Element 5). On the other hand, some quite extensive written work is of little value because it does no more than transmit information. The quality of teaching There has been a steady improvement in the quality of teaching. In 1994/95 teaching was at least satisfactory in eight lessons out of ten; in 1997/98 teaching was at least satisfactory in nine out of ten lessons and good in half of lessons. This reflects both a growth in teachers' expertise and confidence and a growing enjoyment of the subject teaching. The problems identified in 1994/95, including a lack of clear purpose, overdirection, insufficient differentiation, lack of challenge and poor use of resources, can still be found, but to a considerably lesser degree. Good history teachers are very effective in using stories to develop pupils' knowledge and understanding. For example:
Many teachers successfully introduce pupils to sources of historical evidence through the use the local area or of artefacts:
Good examples can be found of teaching which, even with younger pupils, develops an understanding that interpretations of the past differ and that this can arise because of the limitations of the available evidence:
Conversely, weak teaching occurs where teachers' subject knowledge is insufficient to enable them to relate new work to prior learning, to grip pupils with a well-told story, or to select suitable material for a historical enquiry. Some teachers who succeed in these respects are nevertheless unclear about the sorts of tasks which will help achieve their learning objectives. Frequently teachers "play safe", asking questions which require location and transfer of knowledge rather than higher-level understanding and skills. As with many other subjects, the quality and use of day-to-day assessment is weak; and in too many schools the opportunities to write extensively in a "historical genre" are missed. The curriculum In 1991, Key Stage 1 history set out to develop an awareness of the past and how we find out about it, with particular reference to everyday life, famous people and events. This was generally successful, and fitted well with a topic-based approach to the curriculum. It was not, however, without difficulties. In some schools pupils experienced good individual lessons, but their overall programme was limited and incoherent, especially where teachers did not plan for the progressive development of pupils' knowledge, understanding and skills as defined in the Statements of Attainment. Even so, the revised National Curriculum retained the same broad approach in this key stage, and many schools have carried forward their successful practice with regard to content. Many schools, however, have not given due attention to the Key Elements or to issues of depth of study and progression. This is particularly the case where there is no policy or scheme of work for history. Indeed, planning for progression and continuity is good in less than one-quarter of schools and poor in nearly one in three. The 1991 Key Stage 2 history National Curriculum, with nine study units, was a tall order for many schools. In particular, where history was taught as part of a broader topic, study units did not receive proper treatment and learning against historical objectives was often limited. Additionally, the particular nature of assessment in history caused great difficulty, in part because the attainment targets were ticked off as "covered" in a literal sense without due consideration of the necessary context of increasing quality as pupils moved through the levels. The reduction in number of study units to six was generally welcomed, although some schools continued to offer more than the minimum. For most schools, fresh planning was required. Some schools, such as St Gregory's RC School, Preston, Lancashire, made this a priority:
Many schools have not reached this stage, and have yet to gain confidence in using Key Elements to determine learning objectives and, via the level descriptors, to inform planning for progression. As in Key Stage 1, planning for progression and continuity in Key Stage 2 is good in less than one-quarter of schools and poor in one-third. Subject leadership Over the four years of the inspection cycle a common factor in the success of history in schools is the effectiveness of subject leadership. The example below, from Spinfield County Combined School, Marlow, Buckinghamshire, illustrates where subject leadership is good and its effects permeate all history lessons:
However, subject leadership and management was judged at the end of the inspection cycle to be good in only three out of ten schools, and in one in six schools it is unsatisfactory. In this respect, and particularly with reference to monitoring and development planning, history is in a relatively poor position compared with other subjects. Typical weaknesses include the lack of a policy and scheme of work, and little influence on teaching quality. Very few subject leaders have the time necessary to undertake a productive programme of lesson observation. Some subject leaders continue to see their role as restricted to being providers of ideas on request, and of basic resources. Neither has the subject fared well in terms of professional development, with less than one in five schools in 1997/98 being well provided for, and approaching the same number having unsatisfactory provision. Where, however, teachers have had the benefit of training courses, especially 10- and 20-day courses which have enabled them to develop expertise across key areas of work, there have been tangible benefits at individual and whole-school level. Improving standards of history: the way forward History now has a high profile in most schools, and there is much good practice to build on. In reviewing how well they are doing in history, schools need to ask of themselves the following questions:
Standards of achievement There is extraordinary variation in attainment in information technology capability, both within schools and across schools in the country. It is not uncommon for pupils in the same class to have significantly different backgrounds in terms of information technology use. Access to computers in the home greatly affects pupils' confidence and fluency in handling equipment and software from quite a young age. There is little difference in the attainments of boys and girls. This uneven exposure to outside information technology-related activities is reinforced by pupils' uneven exposure to the programmes of study in information technology in schools, particularly in Key Stage 2. Few schools have good overall attainment in the subject even though, in a growing number of schools, many pupils may be producing work of great complexity or excellence. Strengths and weaknesses The strengths of pupils' attainment and progress in information technology are that:
Some weaknesses in terms of attainment and progress are that:
Pupils' attitudes towards information technology remain overwhelmingly positive, and modern equipment and software attract particular praise from them. It is rare to see irresponsible behaviour or lack of courtesy in sharing or employing equipment. Pupils are prepared to learn from their mistakes, to persevere, to take risks, to teach themselves new facilities and skills, to consult and to help others. In some lessons real pleasure can be sensed, for instance when in a Year 5 class a teacher showed how certain screen patterns could be produced by a sequence of Logo commands. If frustration sets in during an information technology-based task, it is usually because of equipment or software malfunction; accidental loss of data; slowness of hardware; or lack of sufficient attention from an expert helper. The quality of teaching In the majority of primary schools, information technology skills, knowledge and understanding are not systematically taught, and almost never systematically assessed. There is considerably less good teaching in information technology than in any other subject. In only one school in five is the overall teaching of information technology judged to be good. But of greater concern is that, while in all subjects the percentage of primary schools with unsatisfactory teaching is in single figures, the percentages of schools with unsatisfactory teaching in information technology are, typically, four times larger, ranging from 23 per cent for Key Stage 1 to 29 per cent for Key Stage 2. The major reasons for the greater incidence of unsatisfactory teaching of information technology are teachers' lack of knowledge of the subject and inadequate planning and organisation of lessons and tasks. The management of pupils rarely presents a problem in information technology, and in fact improved in the last year of the review period; but the effective use of the curriculum and teaching resources challenges teachers. While the subject was often marginalised and rarely taught systematically, especially in Key Stage 2, there has recently been an increase in the practice of teaching information technology to larger groups of pupils. This is often planned quite carefully, and where the resources function well and can be easily supervised, some fine lessons result. Not all teachers, however, are skilled in handling a whole class in a room with more than ten or twelve microcomputers, particularly in the early years of Key Stage 2. This can result in some difficulties when pupils, who have not understood instructions the first time, are unable to gain help when they need it. While many teachers' knowledge of the subject continues to be unsatisfactory and expectations of pupils compare unfavourably with other subjects, some characteristics of good teaching seen in 1998 were:
A primary pedagogy for information technology is thus developing, albeit very tentatively and patchily. Examples of good practice are emerging: teachers are using information technology skilfully and providing good role models for their pupils; and there is careful and systematic teaching of classes through tasks, avoiding misunderstanding and ensuring progress is made in the essential skills, with the minimum of backtracking. Enterprising teachers have already taken advantage of the enhanced resources now becoming available to an increasing number of primary schools to experiment with whole-class teaching of information technology. Some of these resources were recently installed as part of the Government's drive for a National Grid for Learning, and facilitated the enhanced siting and linking of modern computers. While it is too early to comment on the wider impact of these initiatives, initial indications are that the grouping of information and communication technology resources into areas which can be readily supervised following a whole-group introduction eases lesson planning, delivery and appropriate intervention. However, the vast majority of schools are still unaffected by these changes in pedagogy: even where information and communication technology tools are used to promote learning, the teaching of information technology is mostly an adjunct activity rather than a systematic part of lesson planning. The curriculum Although the DfEE's Survey of Information and Communication Technology in Schools (Issue 11/98) shows that computers are used by pupils in about half the lessons, the exposure of any one pupil to information technology is closer to 34 per cent of the timetable in a "good" week. There is no assurance that this time will be equitably distributed, consistently available or properly focused on the development of information technology skills, knowledge and understanding. According to the DfEE survey, one primary school teacher in five uses information technology less frequently than twice a week in lessons. The pupils in such classes thus experience limited teaching of information technology and little time to apply learnt skills to other work. This view is supported by inspection evidence: in Key Stage 1 the breadth and balance of the information technology curriculum was judged to be good in only about one in six schools and unsatisfactory in one-third. In Key Stage 2, breadth and balance for information technology was unsatisfactory in almost half of the schools. Thus almost half the schools with Key Stage 2 pupils are not yet offering them the full programmes of study in information technology. The marginal place of information technology in the curriculum of some schools during the period under review meant that one school in five was not complying at all with the requirements of the National Curriculum in information technology. Schemes of work for information technology are often not specific enough or resourced, nor monitored sufficiently to allow progression. Many schemes exist on paper only and are not implemented. In the primary schools which have made serious attempts to meet the requirements of the National Curriculum in information technology, the schemes of work for most subjects make reference to suitable information technology applications and mention specific information technology competences which have to be taught through such applications or separately from them. Such analysis often owes much to support from local education authority staff, and from the exemplification of expectations in Key Stages 1 and 2 published by SCAA in 1997. This provided helpful guidance on what progression of information technology skills and understanding needed to be developed and monitored. Some of the schemes of work are partial and do not span all programmes of study in information technology, but they contain helpful hints about such aspects as:
Staffing and resources The rapid changes of the technology have posed a massive challenge to primary school teachers. Many are to be commended for readily adapting to the increasing demands of sophisticated facilities and some for grasping the new opportunities that these offered. Not surprisingly, for many teachers with little access to information and communication technology at home, the rapid pace of technological change has presented challenges that it was not easy to meet. Even those who are personally confident in the use of information and communication technology require much training to enable them to teach Information Technology Capability. Although the average expenditure on information technology in primary schools rose from about £10 to £11 per pupil during the years under review, individual schools had very different priorities indeed in terms of information technology provision. A growing minority of schools have invested heavily in modern equipment, including networking, and some have added peripherals, such as digital cameras or electronic display facilities in selected classrooms. A significant minority have begun to receive Standards Fund grants for upgrading their provision and joining the National Grid for Learning. Unfortunately, the expansion of physical provision, though very necessary, is not generally accompanied by sufficient investment of time and expertise in the development of staff competences with information and communication technology and in the methodology of teaching the skills, knowledge and understanding of information technology as a subject. For every £8 spent on hardware, less than £1 was spent on staff training in information technology. The non-teaching time available to curriculum co-ordinators was insufficient in most schools to provide adequate support to other members of staff. Many schools, however, continue to believe mistakenly that once information technology has been given priority in the school development plan during one year, it can be left alone in the following year. Given the rapid technological developments and varying personal attitudes to information and communication, the monitoring of work in information technology remains crucial to its success. The rationale for the teaching of a modern foreign language in primary schools A modern foreign language is included in the curriculum at Key Stage 2 in about one primary school in five,75 although it is not a National Curriculum subject until Key Stage 3. The rationale for providing modern foreign languages for pupils under the age of eleven varies considerably from one school to another. In some schools, the aim of modern foreign language provision is to teach the language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, usually with the emphasis on the first two; in others, the aim is to raise the "language awareness" of pupils in order to arouse their interest in foreign languages at an early stage. In the latter case, the development of positive attitudes to, and enjoyment of, language may be seen initially as more important than the levels of competence reached. Some schools seek to combine these aims; others may be confused as to which they are pursuing. It also appears that some schools, especially those in areas with easy transport links to continental Europe, feel obliged to include a modern foreign language in their curriculum in order to encourage parents to choose a particular school for their children. Schools organise the teaching of modern foreign languages in a range of ways. Some introduce a foreign language as a "taster" prior to pupils' transfer to secondary education. Others provide a brief introduction in preparation for a school visit abroad. Others hold voluntary, after-school, language clubs. More significantly, many include modern foreign languages as a regularly timetabled subject alongside the foundation and core subjects, especially towards the end of Key Stage 2. With very few exceptions, primary schools offer only one modern foreign language and French continues to be predominant; for every 30 primary schools offering a modern foreign language, only one is likely to offer another language (usually German, occasionally Spanish, rarely any other language). This situation can create tensions on transfer to secondary school in some areas where the diversification of the first modern foreign language, encouraged by successive governments, is well established in the secondary phase. Parents may resist the idea of their children switching from French to study, for example, German or Spanish on arriving at their secondary school. There is a concern in some areas that diversification in secondary schools may be undermined by the promotion of French in primary schools. Standards of achievement The motivation of pupils in the first year of study is usually good and their response positive. However, the attainment of pupils in using foreign language skills is very uneven and reflects the variation in the quality of both the teaching and the planning. Young learners usually make a good start, but progress often slows later. They normally imitate speech well and, provided they regularly hear a good model of the foreign language, they develop good pronunciation. With appropriate visual support, they can comprehend the spoken language in familiar contexts. They may be less inhibited than older pupils and use basic greetings more spontaneously or adjust more quickly to classroom routines in the foreign language. If they have an authentic model to imitate, they show a capacity for memorising and repeating accurately rhymes and songs, particularly where the singing or chanting is supported by actions or mime. In the early stages of study, they often acquire quite quickly vocabulary such as numbers, colours and nouns referring, for example, to classroom objects and toys. Unless the momentum is maintained and pupils have the opportunity to consolidate and recycle the language acquired, progress slows, with the result that it is sometimes difficult, for example among Year 6 pupils compared with the pupils in Year 5, to identify an increased communicative capacity as opposed to a larger vocabulary. Where the work is well planned, pupils progress to more demanding tasks, involving the active use of structures and phrases, and not simply the acquisition of vocabulary. The quality of teaching Many classes are taken by non-specialist teachers, who are more likely to offer an unacceptable (Anglicised) model of the foreign language. Where teachers do not speak the foreign language well, the pupils may be imitating inaccuracies in pronunciation and intonation or be exposed to too much English instead of the target language. For example:
Teaching styles and their effectiveness vary greatly, often reflecting the varied backgrounds of the teachers and any other adults involved: for example, the class teacher, French co-ordinator, specialist, foreign language assistant or a parent. The main consequence of this variety is the very uneven extent and quality of use of the target language. This presents a significant in-service training issue. Pupils are likely to be confused if they hear predominantly English in French lessons or constant switching between the two languages. They are unlikely to be equipped with the attitudes or strategies to cope later with the consistent stream of the target language in secondary school foreign language lessons. The following extract from an inspection report illustrates many of the features of successful teaching:
Reinforcement for oral and aural work in some schools is provided by other means outside the limited timetable slots available for modern foreign language teaching. For example, routine business, such as greeting the class and taking the register, is done in the foreign language. Songs in a foreign language can provide a medium for developing pupils' linguistic and musical skills at the same time. Practice in simple arithmetic can be provided by simple addition and subtraction in the foreign language or pupils reciting their tables through that medium. Such reinforcement is usually more effective when the class teacher is also the modern foreign languages teacher for the class, provided the teacher has adequate linguistic expertise to support their generic classroom skills and wider curricular experience. Unfortunately, this dual expertise is rarely found. Curriculum and assessment Schemes of work often provide insufficient guidance for teachers. Better guidelines for assessment are needed if progression within Key Stage 2 and continuity with secondary education are to be reinforced. A few local education authorities have set up local schemes (including advisory support) for teaching modern foreign languages in all their primary schools; others have set out common principles for provision and guidelines for methodology for those schools which have chosen to introduce modern foreign languages. Although guidelines are sometimes not consistently followed for example on the use of the target language schools usually benefit from this support. The teachers in them are more likely to teach an integrated programme of language skills than to present a disconnected series of partial linguistic experiences to their pupils. They are also more likely to be aware of the nature of the studies that the pupils will be expected to undertake under the National Curriculum when they move into Key Stage 3. The need for progression and continuity is therefore more likely to be taken into account, although liaison remains a weak point. Too often, secondary schools discount pupils' prior learning in modern foreign languages, although this is partly understandable where, for example, a secondary school receives pupils from several primary schools, the majority of whom may not have studied modern foreign languages before. The amount of time for which modern foreign languages is studied varies considerably. The most common starting point is Year 5, but some schools start in Year 4 or earlier. Pupils starting before Year 4 may have only a few minutes of modern foreign languages per week, and not necessarily every week. In Year 5 and Year 6 it is more usual for pupils to have about an hour per week, split where possible into two short sessions. Given the pupils' need for constant reinforcement through regular exposure to the foreign language, primary schools might usefully consider concentrating the available time into more intensive teaching of modern foreign languages over a shorter period of time. Since in secondary schools infrequent contacts with the foreign language often lead to lower standards, there is no reason to assume that primary school pupils can benefit from a more diluted approach. Moreover, the sensible emphasis on listening and speaking in the early stages of study means that homework based on reading and writing is not available to provide reinforcement between lessons. There is little formal assessment, recording and reporting of progress in modern foreign languages. Partly because it is not a National Curriculum subject and partly because in many schools only one teacher is involved in teaching modern foreign languages, an informal approach is usually considered adequate. There are cases, especially when there is a change of teacher, where progress is adversely affected because teaching is not able to take prior attainment into account. If pupils' progress is not efficiently recorded within the primary school, it is improbable that liaison in the subject will be effective when pupils transfer to secondary school. Improving standards of modern foreign languages: the way forward The aims and objectives of teaching modern foreign languages in Key Stage 2 need to be set out clearly in each primary school which includes the subject in its curriculum. These aims and objectives should be shared with partner secondary schools so that issues such as progression, continuity and diversification can be addressed. The modern foreign languages policy in the school should be implemented through clear schemes of work consistently applied in the teaching and supported by a coherent approach to assessment, recording and reporting. The implications of using non-specialist teachers should be considered carefully and appropriate staff development measures taken, particularly where the teacher's linguistic knowledge and fluency are insufficient to teach effectively using the target language. Standards of achievement Standards of achievement in music rose sharply during the period 199498. The high standards in singing, playing instruments, composing, listening and appraising that were found in a few schools in 1994 are now found more frequently. The proportion of schools that provide very little music for some of their pupils has decreased. Fewer pupils leave primary school with low attainment in music; they enter secondary school as confident users of the raw materials of music, namely voices, instruments, timing and, above all, sound. Although the improved standards apply in all the National Curriculum programmes of study for music, they are observed most clearly in composing because this is where practice was previously most uneven. In 1994 many teachers were still familiarising themselves with the programmes of study, and taught them mechanistically and without necessarily building on pupils' prior learning. It was not uncommon for teachers to think that composing had to take place within the conventions and limitations of staff notation, and that compositions had always to be written down. Pupils were rarely taught to reflect on the aural quality of their compositions, and to propose and try out ways of improving them. Too much composing consisted of brief clapped rhythms that made no use of voices or instruments. Pupils often found their compositions boring. Greater experience of teaching composing has brought greater confidence. Now teachers recognise that many pupils come to school with experience of working imaginatively with sound, and are seeking to develop and build on this ability through the ways that they teach composing. For example:
Pupils' compositions are now examples of creative work that can be evaluated in terms of their aural effect rather than, for example, the number of crotchets they contain. Pupils have become more proud of their compositions. This has had an impact on pupils' standards in other areas of the National Curriculum in music. Composing has helped pupils to listen with concentration and attention to detail, talk about and discuss the structure and effect of pieces of music, and develop their memory for music. For example:
Pupils usually have positive attitudes to music, but become frustrated when teaching lacks pace. They can lose concentration and become restless when they have to wait unduly long for their turn to play a musical instrument. They become bored by teacher-dominated activities that only allow them one or two taps on an instrument before passing it to someone else, and that do not give them the chance to gain knowledge and understanding of the instrument and the range of sounds it can produce. In schools where musical instruments are used too infrequently, pupils may react to their occasional appearances by wanting to play all the instruments continuously and very loudly. The quality of teaching Teaching in class music has improved sharply during 199498, and is now satisfactory or better in nine lessons out of ten. It is good or better in over a half of lessons in Key Stage 1 and three-fifths of lessons in Key Stage 2. In contrast to other subjects, there is no evidence of a general dip in the quality of teaching during Year 3 and Year 4. Music is usually planned as a discrete subject, but many teachers have become adept at building on pupils' experience in other subjects when they need to be certain that a stimulus for a composition has been understood. For example:
Since 1996, OFSTED has collected data for peripatetic instrumental lessons separately from class music lessons. In 1997/98 the teaching was good or better in three-quarters of lessons, and rarely unsatisfactory. Good instrumental teaching builds on pupils' prior learning, including their learning in class music lessons, and helps them to develop the practical and aural skills needed to perform accurately and expressively on a particular instrument. Many pupils learn to read staff notation during instrumental lessons, but good teaching ensures that they do not become too dependent on written music and encourages them to play by ear, apply and extend their memory for music, and improvise and compose on their instrument. In 1994 there were many primary schools where teachers believed that class music lessons taught by class teachers were necessarily inferior to those taught by music specialists. The meaning of the term 'specialist' varied between schools, but usually denoted a teacher who visited the school only to teach music, or a teacher on the full-time staff of the school who co-ordinated the music curriculum and had taken music as a main subject during initial teacher training. Since 1994 more schools have become aware that good class teaching and poor specialist teaching both exist, and that what matters is whether a teacher has the professional competence, including subject knowledge, to teach music effectively. Teachers who lacked confidence in their own expertise as composers and performers have worked hard, often with the support of music co-ordinators and in-service training, to learn to teach music effectively. They have developed sufficient confidence in their planning and subject knowledge to allow pupils to contribute to the content and flow of their lessons. They show determination to teach all aspects of the music curriculum, and not just those activities that they find easier. Specialists are now expected to be as accountable as class teachers, and to demonstrate for example through documentation of the curriculum and assessment records that they are building on pupils' prior learning and giving them a balanced experience of singing, playing instruments, composing, listening and appraising. However, some problems remain. For example:
The curriculum The provision that schools make for the creative development of under-fives often gives pupils opportunities to sing, echo rhythms, and listen to music, but it underplays creative work in music. However, some schools encourage under-fives to make imaginative use of sound. For example:
Most schools have improved their music curriculum since 1994. Many now place more emphasis on the class music that they offer to all pupils, which is one of the main reasons why standards have risen. Extracurricular activities and peripatetic instrument lessons still take place; indeed, they have expanded in some schools, but are seen increasingly as a means of enhancing the music curriculum for pupils with a particular interest in music, and a way of further raising their attainment, rather than being the raison d'être of the curriculum leader for music. Schools have become better at evaluating the opportunities that they offer to different groups of pupils, including boys and girls, through their curricular and extracurricular work. Reports written by peripatetic teachers feed into the assessment systems of the school. There is greater coherence to the music that many schools offer: pupils may compose on their orchestral instrument during their class lessons, or during a peripatetic instrumental lesson they may try to play by ear the melody of a song that they know from their class lessons. The repertoire of recorded music that pupils hear has expanded beyond the light classics to include music with a broad cultural base and music from the twentieth-century avant-garde movements. In the best examples, pupils can apply some of the knowledge and understanding that they gain from listening to and discussing this music when they perform and compose. Not all schools have followed this trend: there remain some where the music curriculum is unduly narrow and standards are low. Some of these schools feel overburdened by other priorities; others think of music as one of their strengths, but have not evaluated their music curriculum adequately since the introduction of the National Curriculum. Many of these schools neglect composing, or introduce it only in Key Stage 2, when pupils' enthusiasm for working imaginatively and experimentally with sound has already atrophied. These schools often spend too much time on specialist activities not required by the National Curriculum, for example teaching all of the pupils the early stages of playing the descant recorder from staff notation. Clearly, the descant recorder does have a role in primary music, particularly among pupils who like the sound of a descant recorder played well, and when pupils are encouraged to play by ear or from memory and improvise. However, schools need to consider whether their massed recorder lessons are an efficient way of using pupils' time, in terms of raising standards and sustaining or increasing motivation. It is not uncommon to find pupils, often mainly boys, who are still only playing the note B at the end of Year 2, B, A and G at the end of Year 3, and B, A, G and E at the end of Year 6 and who have become very confused about staff notation. They are rarely motivated by this. Improving standards of music: the way forward This brief review has drawn largely on evidence from Section 9 and 10 inspection reports, but also includes evidence from The Arts Inspected.76 Both these sources indicate that in order to improve further standards in music, schools should:
about and discuss the structure and effect of pieces of music; and provide them with strategies for improving the quality and standard of their work. Standards of achievement Over the four years since 1994, standards of achievement in physical education at Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 have remained consistently satisfactory in a large majority of schools and good in one-quarter to one-third of schools; by 1998 they were poor in only about one school in 20. Good progress is often made at pre-Key Stage 1 and at least satisfactory progress is achieved overall from then to the end of Key Stage 2. Where progress is restricted, it is often due to weak teaching that pursues repetitive practice of known skills rather than challenging pupils with tasks to develop these further. The main focus of the work is on the development of skills in the activity areas of gymnastics, dance and games, though strongly positive comment is often made in reports about attainment in swimming. Most pupils are competent in running, jumping, turning, rolling, balancing and linking of actions in sequences in gymnastics, interpreting mood and expression in music and dance, and mastering skills of throwing, catching, hitting and kicking in games. Developing the ability to work well in pairs or groups as pupils move from Key Stage 1 through Key Stage 2 is essential. By the end of Key Stage 2, most pupils can co-operate well with others and compete fiercely but fairly. Many show good understanding of the rules and basic principles of play in adapted or mini versions of the traditional team games. In swimming, the majority of pupils are able to meet the minimum requirements of the National Curriculum and can swim at least 25 metres with confidence; some reach standards well beyond this. Outdoor and adventurous activities (OAA) is a neglected area of the National Curriculum, but a recent survey of good practice in OAA showed that there are good examples of high attainment in primary schools. For example, interesting approaches to the teaching of early orienteering skills, often by teachers who were not specialists, had given the pupils confidence to make map-reading decisions and to demonstrate skills in pairs in competitive events. One rural school linked well with its area secondary school to provide elements of the OAA curriculum. Pupils hiked to the secondary school, took part in practical problem-solving challenges, camped overnight, and journeyed home the following day by a different route that allowed for environmental work. A consistent weakness is the lack of development of the central and essential skills of planning, performing and evaluating in the context of physical activities that underpin the National Curriculum in physical education. In most schools the concentration is on attainment in terms of performing; consequently planning and evaluation skills are too often neglected. There has been little change in this position over the four years of the review period. The quality of teaching Over the four-year cycle there has been an impressive and steady improvement in teaching; in 1997/98 fewer than one in ten lessons were judged to be unsatisfactory compared with one in five in 1994/95. Conversely, the percentage of good or better lessons has increased consistently throughout the period and now stands at between one-half and three-fifths of all lessons at pre-Key Stage 1, Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2. Nearly all lessons in physical education are taught by the class teacher; use of any specialist expertise in a school to teach across classes is rare. Good teachers demonstrate most of the following characteristics in their teaching. They have a good knowledge of the subject and this is well used to promote learning. Lessons are very well planned, linking into National Curriculum programmes of study and allowing for the clear development of a theme. Teachers have high expectations of pupils. Appropriate resources are well prepared, often by the pupils themselves, and the lesson begins at the changing stage in the classroom. These teachers manage pupils well and give clear instructions, with a good pace maintained. With younger pupils, appropriate activities are selected to encourage confidence and early skills; with Key Stage 2 pupils, an increasing complexity of activity and task is used to maintain challenge. Emphasis is given to the development of quality in the work, and the teachers encourage the improvement of skills. They judge effectively when to intervene and they help pupils to make judgements about the quality of the work for themselves. Careful selection and appropriate use of pupils to demonstrate good performance is made, and the pupils are encouraged to define what was good about the work and what might be improved. They ensure that pupils receive immediate feedback to enhance future performance. Teacher assessment of pupils' work is ongoing and is used to inform future planning. Assessment and recording of pupil achievement in primary schools have developed little over the four years of the inspection cycle. Although teachers provide good formative feedback to pupils during lessons, few schools have developed a system for recording progress over time. Many teachers know their pupils well, and too many schools are heavily reliant on the teachers' memory when writing reports for parents. In the best practice, records are structured but might be kept informally in a notebook. The teachers follow common prompts for example to make reference to a pupil's movement quality, to an ability to manage and control the body in different activities, to handle apparatus and equipment, to meet significant new challenges and to work well with others. Such recording should demonstrate improvement over time, the pupils' developing understanding of the body, the acquisition of skills, social maturity in competitive and co-operative situations, and the ability to sustain activity. It should be informal and simple, but highly informative. The curriculum The revised National Curriculum for physical education reduced the range of activities for pupils at Key Stage 1 and this was welcomed by teachers, most of whom are confident in teaching gymnastics, dance and games skills. At Key Stage 2, however, the six areas of activity required were retained, and in many schools only lip service is paid to OAA and athletic activities, while the other areas are generally covered well. Despite this, the problem lies less with coverage of the activities than with the balance achieved between them. Games still dominates the programme at Key Stage 2 and some of the traditional and less desirable features of games lessons such as single-gender football and netball lessons, mixed year groups and a strong focus on invasion games linger on in too many cases. Where dance is taught, it is often taught very well by some teachers in the school. As a result, pupils have intermittent experiences across the key stage, depending on whose class they happen to be in. Most schools are able to include the compulsory swimming element in their programme, but some are prevented by lack of an accessible swimming pool. A central and underpinning principle of the National Curriculum is the continuous cycle of planning, performing and evaluating in movement, yet it is the least well understood or developed element and there have been few signs of improvement over the four years under review. New developments Extracurricular physical activity and sport is a feature of many primary schools and provides an extension to the physical education curriculum for many pupils, especially in Key Stage 2. The use of outside expertise coaches and other volunteers is increasing in both curriculum and extra-curricular time. These people may bring valuable knowledge and skills in specific activities to share with pupils, but not always the teaching expertise or understanding of how young pupils learn. It is essential that schools follow the guidance of the local authority when selecting adults other than teachers to work with pupils, and that outside helpers work under the supervision of qualified teachers when working with pupils. The work of the Youth Sport Trust, through the development of in-service training and materials for the Top Play and BT Top Sport schemes, is impacting on a very large number of primary schools across the country. The schemes are designed to support rather than replace the National Curriculum. Evaluation reports are beginning to show that the schemes are having a positive effect on teacher knowledge and understanding, and on their confidence in teaching games in particular. Further evaluation studies will be required to judge their effect on other aspects of the physical education programme in schools. The designation of 26 secondary specialist sports colleges in different regions is making a significant contribution to the development of primary physical education and after-school physical activity. Each sports college has a remit to work with the wider community to increase opportunity in its area; this includes primary schools. Each sports college is unique and is approaching its work with primary schools in a different way; some are supporting the teaching of curriculum physical education, others are focusing on extended curriculum opportunities for primary pupils using their specialist facilities, and some are doing both. Early indications suggest that the links are positive and are welcomed by primary schools. If successful, the models will be shared with other secondary schools to help them to build stronger links with feeder primary schools and to extend opportunity for participation in physical activity. Improving standards of physical education: the way forward Progress is assisted or constrained by the teachers' subject knowledge, by planning and by awareness of the requirements of the National Curriculum. The good practice described in an earlier paragraph is far from universal. Where achievement is restricted and progress is unsatisfactory, there is a lack of challenge and too many pupils are physically inactive for substantial parts of the lesson. Often the teacher's focus is on the level of activity rather than the quality of the work. Failure by the teacher to intervene in the learning inhibits progress over time, as does the introduction of too many new activities without allowing time for consolidation of existing skills. Balancing repetition and consolidation of prior learning against the pace of moving learning forward is an essential teaching skill which demands good observation, sound knowledge and understanding of the subject, and well timed intervention in the learning process. Progress is best supported by an effective subject co-ordinator and planning within a well designed scheme of work, which clearly outlines progression towards the National Curriculum end-of-key-stage descriptors in physical education. A healthy lifestyle The promotion of physical activity and a healthy lifestyle is an important aspect of physical education, but it is often neglected in the planning and delivery in schools. Pupils develop an understanding of the effects of exercise on the body in only a few schools and, even here, this is limited to an awareness of the need to warm up before exercise and to noting increased heart rate and body temperature. The National Curriculum requires much more than this. Over the two key stages a positive attitude to physical activity should be developed. At an appropriate level, increasing attention should be given to the benefits of physical activity for good health; to posture and the safe use of the body; to simple understanding of cardiovascular function, flexibility, muscular strength and endurance; and, by the end of Key Stage 2, to the need for personal hygiene in relation to vigorous physical activity. This approach will also make a significant contribution to science and health education. This section applies only to LEA maintained schools teaching non-denominational religious education according to a locally agreed syllabus. Standards of achievement There is no national data for standards in religious education since there are no tests, no statutory teacher assessment and no nationally determined standards. Inspection offers the only evidence for standards and shows that, judged against the expectations of a locally agreed syllabus in use, pupils' attainment and their progress in religious education is satisfactory or better in more than nine out of ten schools at Key Stage 1 and just less than nine out of ten schools at Key Stage 2. Pupils' progress in religious education has improved significantly, particularly over the last three years. However, these improvements have been largely from "unsatisfactory or poor" to "satisfactory". Progress at both Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 is good or better in one-third of lessons. At Key Stage 2 the rate of pupils' progress in religious education falls slightly short of that in other subjects. Progress is weakest in Year 3 and strongest in Year 6. Strengths and weaknesses in religious education Four years ago it was unusual to find pupils leaving primary school with much more than rudimentary knowledge of popular Bible stories, and many had had no religious education at all. Now, most pupils arrive in secondary school with at least sound knowledge about Christianity and often of other religions as well. Typically, they know a range of stories from religious traditions, know the life stories of founders and exemplars of the faiths, and can describe some of the significant places and events of the religious traditions studied. However, it is less usual to find pupils whose understanding and skills extend to other objectives in the agreed syllabus, such as the application of religion to life, the ability to consider and come to an opinion on religious questions, or insight into the common questions and concerns of humanity so often explored in religious texts and teachings. This is why progress is only on the whole satisfactory rather than good. Where progress is good, pupils make gains across the range of agreed syllabus objectives. In particular, they understand why religion is important in some people's lives and can see a connection between many of the issues in religious education and their own lives. They ask and respond to questions such as "Why?", "What does this mean?" and "What do I think about this?" rather than simply "Who/what is this?". For example, Year 5 pupils writing about the life of Muhammad considered what it meant to submit to the will of God, and after learning about Gurus Nanak and Gobind Singh discussed what their lives taught them about relationships, leadership and peace. Year 6 pupils learnt the story of Rama and Sita and understood from the story the qualities of character valued in the Hindu community. Where pupils have made good progress across a key stage, the contrast with recent years is evident in both the breadth and depth of their attainment. For example, from an HMI survey:
The progress made across Key Stage 2 in the next school illustrates how, over the last four years, primary pupils are increasingly reaching standards formerly associated with Key Stage 3.
These examples illustrate the best that pupils can achieve; but they represent the minority. In spite of recent improvements, there are some typical weaknesses in religious education, regardless of which agreed syllabus is followed, which could and should be rectified in the near future. These include:
The quality of teaching The recent improvement in standards in religious education is a direct result of a similar improvement in the teaching of it. Although religious education has been statutory since 1994, only in recent years have most teachers come to understand what it involves. Following the adoption of a new range of content-specific agreed syllabuses from 1994 onwards, many teachers became aware for the first time of the scope of religious education. It is not uncommon now to find teachers teaching with enjoyment and interest a subject they once feared, largely through not knowing what it was about. During the last 12 months of the review period, there was a significant increase in the proportion of schools where teaching was judged good or better. Standards in religious education are largely determined by teachers' understanding of those elements that constitute progress in the subject and the methods most likely to achieve them. This was particularly clear in one school using an agreed syllabus with levels of attainment, where Year 3 pupils, whatever their ability, were consistently attaining at Level 2, which requires pupils to "describe" features of religions. No pupils had progressed to Level 3, which demanded "explanation" because the teacher had never set a task which required them to explain anything. Conversely, the following infant school illustrates clearly what happens when a teacher designs tasks with progression in mind:
Teachers' subject knowledge is good in one-third of schools, and unsatisfactory in less than one in ten. There is a sharp contrast between teachers whose knowledge, largely gained from pupils' books and worksheets, is just adequate, and those whose knowledge is good. These are the minority, who have read more widely or have visited places of worship and spoken to adherents in the furtherance of their own understanding. Confidence accompanies knowledge and, where both are lacking, teachers avoid opportunities to ask or receive questions or encourage discussion. For example, a teacher of a Year 1 class, confident of her own ability to cope with challenging questions, taught the story of Jonah in relation to concepts of obedience, salvation and forgiveness in the pupils' own experience. It is unusual to find a primary teacher with this degree of conceptual understanding. Most draw a moral from a story at best and at worst simply tell the story and ask questions about what happened. However, the indications are that teachers are gradually building up their knowledge base of a subject in which most of them have no qualifications or training. Whole-class teaching is favoured in religious education and, typically, teachers make an input (eg story, video, visit) and engage with pupils in question-and-answer sessions. When there is no variation from this style, pupils lack opportunities for independent learning or working with others. The style can be used effectively when teachers have a clear plan for the progression of the discussion and focus questions in relation to the objectives of the agreed syllabus. For example:
Good religious education teachers make full use of the wide range of resources available today and are aware of which resources and strategies are best suited to developing different aspects of religious education. So, visits to places of worship, artefacts, games, CD-ROMs and posters are used to explore religious practices and traditions, while drama, dance, role-play and circle time are used to explore ideas and feelings. In spite of the increase in good practice, there are still too many teachers who do not challenge pupils sufficiently. Features of these lessons include an emphasis on drawing, colouring in, word searches and other low-level tasks, and an exclusive reliance on lesson preparation by the co-ordinator. In such cases, lessons are perceived as something to be delivered without personal involvement. In most schools, religious education is taught by the class teacher. Where class teachers are prepared to improve their own subject knowledge and are committed to high standards, this can succeed. However, there are cases of religious education being taught by teachers who have no interest in, or sympathy with, the subject. This is an important factor in lowering the quality of religious education in the school as a whole, even where some teaching is very good. In contrast to the start of the inspection cycle, most schools now have a co-ordinator or teacher with responsibility for religious education. The effectiveness of the co-ordinator often determines the quality of religious education in the school. The co-ordinator is usually responsible for planning across the key stage from the agreed syllabus, for resourcing religious education and for suggesting activities. During the last four years many co-ordinators have benefited from 10-day in-service training financed by GEST. The following profile gives a detailed insight into the work of a co-ordinator who is seeking ways of improving religious education in a school where it is already good:
The curriculum In 1994 an estimated half of primary schools failed to teach religious education to all their pupils. In 1998 only one school in ten failed to do so. This partly explains the increase in satisfactory standards and teaching and indicates that for some schools, despite previous legislation, religious education is a comparatively new subject. Another significant change during the last four years has been the move to discrete religious education lessons rather then religious education being "bolted on" to topic work. This development has increased the necessity for distinct religious education schemes of work dictated by the agreed syllabus rather then by the subjects forming the focus of topics. As teachers' subject knowledge improves, so do sensible links with other subject areas. For example, instances of Noah's Ark unsuitably linked with other teaching on animals, water, buildings and weather are now rare compared with helpful links between religious education (Islam) and geography (Pakistan). Assessment At both key stages, assessment is weaker in religious education than in any other subject. Schools rarely have a policy on assessment in religious education, and even where an agreed syllabus does include clear expectations, these are rarely used for assessment purposes. Improving standards of religious education: the way forward In order to build on already substantial improvements in religious education, schools should:
75Modern Foreign Languages in Primary Schools. Centre for Information on Language Teaching, 1995. 76 OFSTED (1998) The Arts Inspected. Oxford: Heinemann.
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